An experimental investigation into the oxygen consumption of upper palaeolithic illumination technology: a response to <i>Kedar, Kedar, & Barkai</i>

Whitehead, Alexander, Scott, Christopher ORCID: 0009-0006-7685-9550 and French, Jennifer C ORCID: 0000-0001-5947-6669 (2025) An experimental investigation into the oxygen consumption of upper palaeolithic illumination technology: a response to <i>Kedar, Kedar, & Barkai</i> TIME & MIND-THE JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY CONSCIOUSNESS AND CULTURE, 18 (3-4). pp. 145-161. ISSN 1751-696X, 1751-6978

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Abstract

Upper Palaeolithic parietal art is frequently found deep within cave systems where illumination technologies were required for art production. Kedar, Kedar, & Barkai hypothesise that the oxygen consumption of illumination technology, combined with the poor ventilation of deep cave chambers, resulted in a hypoxia-induced altered-state-of-consciousness which incentivised ritual activity and influenced art production. This experimental research investigates the oxygen consumption of fat-burning lamps and finds that they extinguish at 17% oxygen concentration, which is far above the threshold for hypoxia-induced-ASC. Additionally, the production of exhaust-gases from fat-burning lamps is also investigated, finding that neither carbon monoxide nor carbon dioxide is produced at a high enough rate to induce an altered-state-of-consciousness. This experiment therefore does not support Kedar, Kedar, & Barkai’s hypothesis.

Item Type:	Article
Uncontrolled Keywords:	Illumination technology, Upper palaeolithic, Parietal art, Altered-states-of-consciousness, Experimental archaeology
Divisions:	Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences > School of Histories, Languages and Cultures
Depositing User:	Symplectic Admin
Date Deposited:	27 Aug 2025 08:50
Last Modified:	16 Jun 2026 11:04
DOI:	10.1080/1751696X.2025.2534133
Open Access URL:	https://doi.org/10.1080/1751696X.2025.2534133
Related Websites:	Author Publisher
URI:	https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/id/eprint/3194168
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