Ecology and environment predict spatially stratified risk of H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza clade 2.3.4.4b in wild birds across Europe

Hayes, S, Hilton, J, Mould-Quevedo, J, Donnelly, CA, Baylis, M ORCID: 0000-0003-0335-187X and Brierley, L ORCID: 0000-0002-3026-4723 (2026) Ecology and environment predict spatially stratified risk of H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza clade 2.3.4.4b in wild birds across Europe Scientific Reports, 16 (1). 997-. ISSN 2045-2322, 2045-2322

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Abstract

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) represents a threat to animal and human health, with the ongoing H5N1 outbreak within the H5 2.3.4.4b clade being one of the largest on record. However, it remains unclear what factors have contributed to its intercontinental spread. We use Bayesian additive regression trees, a machine learning method designed for probabilistic modelling of complex nonlinear phenomena, to construct species distribution models (SDMs) for HPAI clade 2.3.4.4b presence. We identify factors driving geospatial patterns of infection and project risk distributions across Europe. Our models are time-stratified to capture both seasonal changes in risk and shifts in epidemiology associated with the succession of H5N6/H5N8 by H5N1 within the clade. While previous studies aimed to model HPAI presence from physical geography, we explicitly consider wild bird ecology by including estimates of bird species richness, abundance of specific taxa, and “abundance indices” describing total abundance of birds with high-risk behavioural traits. Our projections of HPAI clade 2.3.4.4b indicate a shift in persistent, year-round risk towards cold, low-lying regions of northwest Europe associated with H5N1. Methodologically, we demonstrate that while most variation in risk can be explained by climate and physical geography, adding host ecology is a valuable refinement to SDMs of HPAI.

Item Type:	Article
Uncontrolled Keywords:	Animals, Animals, Wild, Birds, Bayes Theorem, Europe, Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype, Influenza in Birds
Divisions:	Faculty of Health & Life Sciences Faculty of Health & Life Sciences > Inst. Infection, Vet & Ecological Sciences Faculty of Health & Life Sciences > Inst. Infection, Vet & Ecological Sciences > Livestock & One Health
Depositing User:	Symplectic Admin
Date Deposited:	10 Dec 2025 09:37
Last Modified:	28 Feb 2026 01:34
DOI:	10.1038/s41598-025-30651-9
Open Access URL:	https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-30651-9
Related Websites:	Author Publisher
URI:	https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/id/eprint/3196039
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